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36 SMT007 MAGAZINE I SEPTEMBER 2025 ment, with evolving requirements and a lack of consistent standards. This uncertainty has led to communication breakdowns between OEMs, Tier 1s, and EMS providers, making alignment on reliabil- ity targets elusive. Defining the Scope of e-Mobility e-Mobility spans far beyond passenger cars. It encompasses electric buses, trucks, motorcycles, off-road machinery, construction equipment, and even electric aircraft. While this series focuses primarily on automotive applications and their charging infrastructure, lessons from adjacent sectors are valuable. For instance, according to KPMG, two- and three-wheel vehicles in Asia are seeing faster elec- trification adoption than passenger cars, bringing with them rapid innovation in battery thermal man- agement 2 . Similarly, fuel cell buses are pioneering hybrid thermal sys- tems by integrating waste-heat recovery and combined heat- ing and cooling for batteries and cabins that could eventually inform thermal architectures in future passenger EVs 3 . Monitoring trends in these faster-moving sec- tors can provide valuable insights and potential technology transfers. The global EV market experienced over 35% annual growth between 2019 and 2023. Yet growth has recently plateaued in regions like Europe and the U.S. due to reduced government incentives, infrastructure inadequa- cies, and price pressures. The upside of this pause is a window of opportunity, an inflection point, to address foundational reliability issues before the next wave of accelerated growth. The Regulatory and Environmental Push One of the strongest driving forces behind e-Mobility is environmental regulation. Govern- ments around the world are mandating lower CO₂ emissions, supporting zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) initiatives, and investing in charging infrastructure. The EU, China, India, Norway, and the U.S. have all enacted aggressive timelines to phase out internal combustion engines (ICE) in favor of cleaner technologies. These regulations go beyond emissions. Auto- makers are now under pressure to demonstrate traceability of materials and sustainability of their supply chains. With increased regulatory scrutiny on rare earth elements and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), the bar for compliance is rising 4 . While these shifts are necessary for long-term environmental health, they also create risks, intro- ducing new materials and technologies that may not yet be validated for reliability in EV environments. When sustainable materials are introduced with- out robust qualification, there's a heightened risk of field failures. For example, substituting a proven polymer used in high-voltage insulation with a greener alternative could backfire if it breaks down under high voltage, thermal cycling, or moisture ingress. Thus, reliability and sustainability must advance hand-in-hand. A Marketplace Racing Ahead The consumer landscape is changing fast. Drivers now expect EVs to not only match but exceed ICE vehicles in performance, connectivity, and user experience. That expectation is shifting the balance from mechanical systems to embedded electronics. Autonomous features, real-time diagnostics, and immersive infotainment all depend on robust and highly integrated electronics 5 . This digital revolution has triggered a "software- defined vehicle" mindset in the industry. OTA (over-the-air) updates have become a core function- ality, allowing manufacturers to fix bugs, improve performance, and even update safety-critical systems remotely. While convenient, OTA updates also introduce reliability risks. Software bugs can disable key systems or cause compatibility issues with existing hardware. In some cases, OTA updates have inadvertently "soft-bricked" infotainment units 6 , impacted charging compatibility 7 , or introduced new drivability issues 8 . These challenges illustrate a larger trend: the Stan Rak