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AUGUST 2023 I DESIGN007 MAGAZINE 13 sent the program. In other words, algorithms are the building blocks that make up machine learning and artificial intelligence. A machine learning model (Figure 1) is a model that has been trained to recognize cer- tain types of patterns. A model is trained over a set of data, providing it with an algorithm that it can use to reason over and learn from those data. Specifically, machine learning models are computer programs that are used to recognize patterns in data or to make pre- dictions. Machine learning models are created from machine learning algorithms. ese algo- rithms adapt, evolve, and improve themselves based on the data they process. e models can be used to make predictions, categorize infor- mation, or discover patterns. How Could AI Improve Placement and Routing of a PCB? Skilled PCB designers have many years of experience laying out complex designs such as high-speed FPGA and memory circuits, so AI needs to absorb this same information in order to achieve the same (or better) results but in a much shorter timeframe. Data in the form of design rules and images of preferred rout- ing strategies can be fed into the input layer of the machine learning model. Algorithms in the hidden layers of the model can then process this data, and recognize, predict, and create the resultant layout (Figure 2). Sample images of steadfast routing patterns plus the netlist, appropriate rules for electrical and mechanical constraints, frequently used stackup configurations, system timing, and memory timing requirements (plus sample eye diagrams of working designs) are fed into the model where the learning algorithms recog- nize and process the images and data to predict an optimal solution. Machine learning uses two types of tech- niques: supervised learning, which trains a model on known input and output data so that Figure 1: Machine learning model. (Source: IBM)